Lead as an Environmental Pollutant

Lead as an Environmental Pollutant

Lead
 

Lead is a metal found in the environment. Lead, easy to shape and a good conductor, is one of the most serious of environmental pollutants .If a person is exposed to large amounts of lead, poisoning may occur. It has adverse effects as it accumulates in the body, especially for children and pregnant women. It can lead to behavior disorders, anemia, mental retardation and permanent nerve damage. Most lead accumulates in bone and kidney.

Mankind has been using lead for over 6000 years, and solely as a result of anthropogenic activities, lead has become the most ubiquitous toxic metal. Hippocrates was probably the first of the ancient physicians to recognize lead as the cause of colic. Lead toxicity was recognised and recorded as early as 2000 BC and its widespread use has been a cause of endemic chronic plumbism in several societies throughout history. The last three centuries also witnessed the worst outbreaks of lead poisoning among adults, which were occupational in origin, although environmental pollution also reported adverse effects of lead on health. Many reviews and references are available in literature related to health effects of exposure to lead. Now-a-days, there is much concern about its exposure from occupational and community environment, contaminated food and consumer items, and water. In India, some industries especially those making batteries, cables, paints, sheets, pipes, industrial alloys are the major consumers of lead. The possible sources of lead exposure are contaminated soil and water, mining, ceramics, food adulterants, pencils, toys, industrial effluents, cosmetics and herbal medicines. In developed countries, lead exposure is on the decline due to implementation of environmental and occupational regulations but in developing countries lead poisoning continues to be a serious problem.

Lead is not natural within the body and is not required in the diet. Because of technology, however, lead exposure has become fairly common. This exposure can lead to increased levels of lead in the body, which may cause harm.

In India & the rest developing countries i.e., to majority the Asian countries the prevalence of Lead Poisoning and its Toxicity and its effects is very high due to the improper knowledge.

Lead poisoning in our Indian and Asian countries has silently taken epidemic proportions. It is a preventable disease. Combined actions and efforts of the government, public awareness, and societal responsibility of industry and timely interaction of the medical community are desired. All streams of society should channelize efforts to meet the challenge.

Lead-based paint and lead-contaminated dust in older buildings are the most common sources of lead poisoning in children. Other sources of lead poisoning include contaminated air, water, soil, and some toys and cosmetics. Man-made sources of lead include lead smelting and refining, the combustion of leaded fuel, the production of storage batteries, the manufacture of alkyl lead and lead points and the application of lead-based pesticides. Lead pipes, lead-glazed earthenware and flaking lead points are possible sources of lead in the domestic environment.

A person can be exposed to lead from the following sources:

Ø  Paints

Ø  Vehicle exhaust

Ø  Leaded gasoline

Ø  Industrial lead exposure

Ø  Lead Acid Batteries

Ø  Glazy and shiny Cosmetics & Jewellery.

Ø  Industrial untreated Water Pollutant.

Ø  Soldering.

Ø  poorly glazed ceramic objects, which may be used to store beverages

Food

Food

Food is also a major source of lead intake in adults who are not occupationally exposed or have high concentration of lead in drinking water. The contribution of airborne lead to the total daily absorption as compared to average dietary intake is more difficult to estimate, as it depends upon the concentration, particle size and solubility of the lead. Some scientists suggest that airborne lead is much more dangerous and that about 50% of it may be absorbed on inhalation.

Lead in the food chain comes mostly from direct deposit from the air to plants and from livestock eating soil laced with lead as they eat the plants. The bans on leaded gasoline and paint have reduced exposure. Imported foods, however, may still contain significant levels of lead (chocolate, coffee beans, etc.)

Some older pieces of china may contain lead which can leach out from the surface of the dish and get into foods and beverages. Then, when the food is eaten, the lead gets into the body. Precautions that can be taken to reduce your exposure to lead in food include, avoiding the use of glazed pottery and pewter dishes to serve or store food, avoiding the storage of beverages in leaded glass decanters, keeping the home clean and as dust free as possible, eating a variety of foods.

Cosmetics:

Cosmetics are products people use to cleanse or change the look of the face or body.

Cosmetics

Cosmetic products include:

v  skin creams & lotions

v  perfumes

v  lipsticks

v  fingernail polishes

v  eye and face make-up products

v  permanent waves

v  hair dyes

v  toothpastes

v  deodorants

Unlike drugs, which are used to treat or prevent disease in the body, cosmetics do not change or affect the body's structure or functions.

Beauty products such as lipsticks, lotion, foundation, mascara add up to 515 chemicals on a woman’s face everyday, say a study. Therefore beauty is skin-deep quite literal. Experts linked some of the additives to cancer, hormone problems, skin conditions and allergies, usage of lead in cosmetics increases health risk in women.

Lead is used frequently in manufacturing cosmetics due to its glittering property, which attracts the people of different age groups. Most fashion accessories like cosmetics have lead content in alarming proportion. The risk run by the young people engaged in beautifying and embellishing their persona may be tacit but truly terrifying.

Immediate Actions for Lead Safe Cosmetics:

ü Taking immediate action to phase out the most hazardous cosmetics ingredients on the Indian market.

ü Empowering the Govt. to regulate cosmetic ingredients and products before they reach store shelves to ensure their safety.

ü Promoting Natural & Healthy Cosmetics.

ü Educating the youngsters and women’s in all walk of life regarding the dangerous of Lead.

Paints:

This industry category includes establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing paints (in paste and ready-mixed form); varnishes; lacquers; enamels; shellac; dry powder coatings; putties, wood fillers, and sealers; paint and varnish removers; paintbrush cleaners; and allied paint products.

Most schools have playground, play articles where the items are painted in bright colors. 90% of paints in INDIA were lead based till 2008. Some makers have changed some output to LEAD SAFE paint products.

FACTS ABOUT LEAD POLLUTION:-

1. Lead is a neurotoxin and accumulates in the environment, so it is patently foolish to spray it around the streets. Lead contributes to the high rate of osteoporosis, the brittle-bone disease that bends the backs, shortens the stature and breaks the hips of many older women
2. Lead is a proven neurotoxin that can cause learning, language and behavioral problems such as lowered IQ, reduced school performance and increased aggression. Pregnant women and young children are particularly vulnerable to lead exposure, because lead easily crosses the placenta and enters the fetal brain where it can interfere with normal development. At high levels, lead in the blood of a pregnant woman can lead to a miscarriage or premature birth and at lower levels it can hold back the development of an unborn baby's nervous system and brain. Soft (acidic) water in areas with lead plumbing can be hazardous to bottle-fed babies.
3. Children are particularly vulnerable. Lead has no biological utility and is hard to eliminate from the body. Lead can influence any organ system. Levels above 10 µg/dl are unacceptable level as of now. The toxicity of lead often depends on the blood levels. The lowest toxic range influences intelligence, hearing, and growth and pregnancy outcomes.
4.  Childhood is a risky time because exposure to lead during the first four years can damage nerve cells and retardation. Students with high levels of lead are more likely to be distracted and easily bored. Hyperactivity in a young child often turns out to be a symptom of lead poisoning, and hyperactive children are more likely to become delinquent
5.   A drop in children's IQ in some countries, i.e., five points on average, is blamed on lead in the air.
6.  No other toxic chemical pollutant has accumulated in man to average levels so close to the threshold for overt clinical poisoning.

Reduction of lead poisoning involve 4 independent strategies:

(1) To reduce occupational exposure from the Industries and adhering to the strict regulations to avoid environmental pollutant.

(2) To treat conditions like anemia, calcium deficiency which may increase lead absorption?

(3) To create awareness about lead poisoning among the general public and the Industries in turn bringing the precautionary measurements in minimizing to lead exposure.

(4) Treatment of a lead poisoned child, which includes managing symptoms, reductions of re-exposure and chelating under medical supervision.

QPEC

NASA Studies How Airborne Particles Affect Climate Change

A recent NASA study links natural and human-made aerosol particles to how much Earth warms or cools. Earth's atmosphere acts as a protective shield that regulates how much solar energy the planet absorbs or deflects. The Intercontinental Chemical Transport Experiment studied how chemicals and pollution affect that protective shield by measuring air flowing from North America and across the Atlantic Ocean.

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"The majority of aerosols form a layer of haze near the Earth's surface, which can cause either a cooling or warming effect, depending on aerosol type and location," said Jens Redemann, lead author of the science paper at NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, Calif.

Different types of aerosol particles can influence visible light and other kinds of radiation, affecting climate and temperatures, the scientists reported. "Changing the flow of radiation – including light – above and within the atmosphere changes the energy available for driving Earth's climate," said Phil Russell, also a NASA Ames scientist.

"Our study measured how aerosols change the flow of solar energy," Russell said. This solar energy includes visible light and also radiation at shorter and longer wavelengths in the ultraviolet and infrared ranges.

To find out the extent to which tiny particles in the air could affect climate, NASA scientists flew in a low-flying aircraft over the dark waters of the Gulf of Maine. Two types of instruments on the aircraft measured radiation from the sun.

Radiometers – devices that measure the intensity of radiant energy – measured total solar energy coming from all directions. At the same time, a sun photometer – an instrument that measures the intensity of the sun’s light – measured sunlight coming directly, straight from the sun through the atmosphere. The quantity of aerosols in the atmosphere between the sun photometer and the sun is proportional to the difference between the light intensity measured by the sun photometer and the amount of light that would pass through an aerosol-free atmosphere.

Combining measurements of total solar light intensity from all directions, solar light intensity directly, straight from the sun, and the amount of aerosols in the atmospheric column, scientists can estimate how much of the sun’s energy is scattered (redirected) and absorbed (causes heating) by atmospheric aerosols. These measurements are useful to climate scientists as a reality check for computer climate models.

Composted Biosolids Bind Lead In Soil, Reducing Danger Of Poisoning

Composted Biosolids Bind Lead In Soil, Reducing Danger Of Poisoning

Adding composted biosolids rich with iron, manganese and organic matter to a lead-contaminated home garden in Baltimore appears to have bound the lead so it is less likely to be absorbed by the bodies of children who dirty their hands playing outside or are tempted to taste those delicious mud pies they "baked" in the backyard.

The garden soil in the study is similar to potentially hundreds of thousands of yards contaminated with lead in Baltimore and other inner cities, according to Sally L. Brown, University of Washington research assistant professor of forest resources and lead author of an article in the current issue of the Journal of Environmental Quality.

Even yards that were never near smelter operations can have contaminated soils because of lead-based paints from older buildings and auto exhaust from leaded gasoline. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention says that 50 percent of inner-city children in the United States have lead levels in their blood high enough to cause irreversible damage to their health.

Children swallow particles of lead if they are still at the age when they'll put anything – including dirt – into their mouths or if they pick up particles on their hands and clothes and then go inside to eat a snack.

The bioavailability – that is the amount of lead available to enter the bloodstream – was lowered 20 percent to 38 percent after mixing composted biosolids with the contaminated garden soil, according to Brown and her co-authors, Rufus Chaney, Judith Hallfrisch and Qi Xue of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Maryland. The best mixture for reducing bioavailability was one made from Baltimore biosolids that contained more iron and manganese than the others tested.

Biosolids are the organic residuals produced during wastewater treatment. Once composted, biosolids look like other commercially available composts and are approved for use by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as a soil amendment by home gardeners, farmers and others.

Using composted biosolids to remediate soils would be far less costly than other alternatives, Brown says. While soil contaminated with lead might be removed and replaced if it was at a Superfund site, that is just not possible within cities.

"We're not going to be able to 'remove' Baltimore," Brown says.

Co-author Chaney, a metals specialist, says, "Ever since we found the extensive urban-soil lead problems in the mid '80s, we've been seeking a lower-cost option to soil removal. This appears to be the answer."

In the study, funded by the non-profit Water Environment Research Federation headquartered in Virginia, the scientists tested seven different biosolids and composted biosolid treatments, adding 3 inches of each to different areas of the garden, then thoroughly mixing the soils weekly for 30 days. Soil samples and laboratory rats exposed to the soils were tested for changes in lead levels. Since then, findings from a pilot program adding composts to other home gardens in Baltimore and East St. Louis, Ill., appear to confirm the findings.

Brown says researchers still need to find out how long the effects last and if similar results can be obtained using compost that doesn't come from biosolids.

They'd also like to investigate exactly why composted biosolids change the nature of lead so it's not so readily absorbed by the body. Brown and her co-authors hypothesize that this happens because biosolids are generally more than 50 percent organic matter, often contain high concentrations of iron, as well as high levels of phosphorous and manganese. Studied singly by other groups of scientists, each of these soil conditions was shown to reduce lead availability in soils, according to studies published in 1999 and 2000. Brown and her co-authors studied all three components at once and monitored effects on living organisms as well as changes in soils.

Adapted from materials provided by University Of Washington.

Lets Worship Eco-Ganesha.

Eco-Ganesha.......!!!!

Make up itself indicates that making up which means beautification,hiding your flaws and beautifying.Lets worship Ganesha as a our loving Lord Ganesha rather then beautifying him with toxic & dangerous chemicals.

In the name of “Lord Ganesha” nearly tones of paints manufactured by toxic chemicals like lead(Pb),nitrate etc. extensively have been used The exposure can be diverse and multiple.

Lead and many toxic chemicals has no biological utility and is hard to eliminate from the body. Lead affects almost all the organ systems. Children are particularly vulnerable to Lead. The toxicity of lead often depends on the blood levels.

Levels between 20-30 µg/dl influence hemoglobin synthesis and the capacity to carry oxygen throughout the body for good body function. This condition is commonly called anemia. The heavy metal (Pb) is stored in the bones and also influences the vitamin D metabolism, which is crucial to bone metabolism. Kidney may be damaged resulting in renal failure.

Encephalopathy is the m dreaded and serious consequence of lead poisoning. This manifests as unconsciousness, convulsions, regression of development in a young child and therefore completely alters the life potential of the lead poisoning child. It is clear from the above that all the symptoms enumerated have serious consequences on quality of life. Lead thus becomes an important environmental poison to understand and tackle.

Combined actions and efforts of the government, public awareness and social responsibility of industry and timely interaction of the medical community are desired. All streams of society should channelize efforts to meet the challenge.

Recycling of Paint if available would have been great but reusing and reducing of toxic paints is the best choice.

If you are buying a Ganesh idol, please opt for environmentaly friendly Eco-Ganesha.

Global Financial Crisis-It’s effect on Life Science Industry

                 Global Financial Crisis-It’s effect on Life Science Industry
   
     India’s and almost all countries most innovative sectors is facing potential catastrophe in the current financial crisis, as many ‘Life Science’ companies face increasing difficulties to access the funding they need to keep afloat. As per NSE, BSE view on behalf of the Indian ‘Life Science’ Enterprises, paints a grim picture of the impact of the crisis on the sector.
    The problem is particularly more acute in healthcare life science/biotechnology because product development can take up to 12 years of research before companies have a viable, marketable product. This means many companies are dependent on external funding for liquidity – a resource that almost disappeared as the financial crisis continues to bite. In addition to the impact on the basic research performed at Life Science companies, development of medicines by pharmaceutical companies has also been hit by the credit crunch.
      The global financial crisis could seriously delay the discovery and production of many new life-saving medicines. Drug discovery depends on long-term finance with high risk of failure and lots of it investment into research for new drugs which globally runs into the billions is now seriously at threat as former investors in the drug companies shy away as a result of the economic meltdown
     Financing of biotechnology companies hit $50bn in 2007. And overall, this biotech’s only made profits for the very first time last year, amounting to $1bn on revenues of $59bn by a report across American, European and Asian countries. But the strategy before the sun shine in their success and further growth it has being into halt deprived in name of financial crisis. Whilst the immediate impact would be highly damaging, the long-term ramifications would be much greater. In the medium to long term, it could spell a major setback to “Life Science Companies” future competitiveness. Bankruptcies on any scale could mean that the benefits of health research already undertaken by the scientific enterprises may be lost. For medicinal products under development, which already have a limited patent life, this will further reduce their appeal to potential investors.
  The current financial crisis is first and foremost a crisis of confidence. The tip of the iceberg may be the subprime mortgage crisis and its immediate aftermath, but the roots of the crisis have to do with unsustainable dual deficits (fiscal and trade) that have resulted in gargantuan levels of Indian debt, both private and public.
  Ultimately, we have to recognize that a financial system built on credit cannot survive if the issuer of that credit continues to pile up debt. For years now, we in the India have been consuming beyond our means, relying on European/American and oil-exporting countries to finance our expenditures with their trade surpluses and other savings. A long-term solution to this problem can only come from careful rebalancing of global production and consumption patterns. We need to produce and save more; other countries need to consume more of our go….
   
  Credit is limited, but life science firms that hoard funds right now, instead of using them for investments and operations, are directly contributing to the downward cycle of the economy. Constrained life science firms plan cuts in operating costs this year that are roughly twice as deep as unconstrained firms. That includes approximately slashing employment by 35 percent, research and development by 50 percent, marketing by 35 percent and dividends by 10 percent. The forecasts are likely conservative.
  There is no avoiding the tough market conditions that companies are facing. All markets have slowed and some are in significant recession. The current crisis has removed any doubt as to how tangled risk is with performance. The volatility of the economic crisis has increased the pace at which life science industries need to revamp their organization and value chain. Every business trading today must anticipate that their performance is in constant jeopardy, so whatever their business or operating model, improving performance must be a key business objective, closely aligned with an immediate and long term focus on reducing costs. The crisis could deepen further in 2010 if the current situation persists. This unprecedented state of affairs means that over 50 % of small life science companies already feel under threat.
  Many industries face challenges in this climate; however the life/bio science market is unique. This is not just about saving jobs in the short term, it’s about protecting India’s capacity to drive medical innovation and health care. Small life/bio science companies represent a substantial part of the future of India’s health and competitiveness. If we do not support the sector, much of the innovation already created may be lost.
  One potential solution could be for urgent assistance from the Investment Banks. More over the government has to establish some credibility for the Banks (Indian Banks). The Bank’s credibility is in urgent need of repair following a catalogue of failures.
 failure to regulate banks;
 failure in good relationship with investors;
 failure to spot bad lending;
 failure to mitigate financial risks;
 failure to provider proper financial oversight;
 failure to rescue insolvent banks;
 failure of monetary policy;
 failure to maintain political independence and
 failure to keep inflation within target.
   
  Governments, companies and regulators must reduce the rewards for growth and profits to avoid a far worse crisis and the collapse of the life support systems. Industry need to secure their positions by identifying and resolving critical issues quickly to protect against value erosion, or to be well placed to take advantage of opportunities. A holistic review of a company’s ability to access liquidity, manage and release cash and control costs is essential to managing overall risk from changes in market forces. This review needs to extend beyond the business to include the health of both its supplier and customer base. By demonstrating faith in healthcare bio/life sciences, the institutions and companies can maintain confidence and attract potential investors to come forward.
    The current economic crisis is calling into question business model fundamentals and putting all companies in stress. Volatility and uncertainty are the foremost characteristics of the new world economy and may well be for quite a while to come. Yet experience of previous recession’s shows that there will be companies continue to prosper.
There is opportunity in the adversity of the worst of markets. Be encouraged to find that opportunity right now.

   

         Climate Warming Affects Antarctic Ice Sheet Stability

      A five-nation scientific team has published new evidence that even a slight rise in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, one of the gases that drives global warming, affects the stability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS). The massive WAIS covers the continent on the Pacific side of the Transantarctic Mountains. Any substantial melting of the ice sheet would cause a rise in global sea levels.


The research, which was published in the March 19 issue of the journal Nature, is based on investigations by a 56-member team of scientists conducted on a 1,280-meter (4,100-foot)-long sedimentary rock core taken from beneath the sea floor under Antarctica's Ross Ice Shelf during the first project of the ANDRILL (ANtarctic geological DRILLing) research program--the McMurdo Ice Shelf (MIS) Project.

"The sedimentary record from the ANDRILL project provides scientists with an important analogue that can be used to help predict how ice shelves and the massive WAIS will respond to future global warming over the next few centuries," said Ross Powell, a professor of geology at Northern Illinois University.

"The sedimentary record indicates that under global warming conditions that were similar to those projected to occur over the next century, protective ice shelves could shrink or even disappear and the WAIS would become vulnerable to melting," Powell said. "If the current warm period persists, the ice sheet could diminish substantially or even disappear over time. This would result in a potentially significant rise in sea levels."

ANDRILL--which involves scientists from the United States, New Zealand, Italy and Germany--refines previous findings about the relationship between atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration, atmospheric and oceanic temperatures, sea level rise and natural cycles in Earth's orbit around the Sun, through the study of sediment and rock cores that are a geological archive of past climate.

The dynamics of ice sheets, including WAIS, are not well understood, and improving scientists' comprehension of the mechanisms that control the growth, melting and movements of ice sheets was one of NSF's research priorities during the International Polar Year (IPY). The IPY field campaign, which officially ended March 2009, has been an intense scientific campaign to explore new frontiers in polar science, improve our understanding of the critical role of the polar regions in global processes, and educate students, teachers, and the public about the polar regions and their importance to the global system. NSF was the lead agency for U.S. IPY efforts.

The cores retrieved by ANDRILL researchers have allowed them to peer back in time to the Pliocene era, roughly 2 million to 5 million years ago. During that era, the Antarctic was in a natural climate state that was warmer than today and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels were higher. Data from the cores indicate the WAIS advanced and retreated numerous times in response to forcing driven by these climate cycles.

Powell and Tim Naish, director of Victoria University of Wellington's Antarctic Research Centre, served as co-chief scientists of the 2006-2007 ANDRILL project that retrieved the data and are lead authors in one of two companion studies published in Nature.

Naish said the new information gleaned from the core shows that changes in the tilt of Earth's rotational axis has played a major role in ocean warming that has driven repeated cycles of growth and retreat of the WAIS for the period in Earth's history between 3 million and 5 million years ago.

"It also appears that when atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations reached 400 parts per million around four million years ago, the associated global warming amplified the effect of the Earth's axial tilt on the stability of the ice sheet," he said.

"Carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is again approaching 400 parts per million," Naish said. "Geological archives, such as the ANDRILL core, highlight the risk that a significant body of permanent Antarctic ice could be lost within the next century as Earth's climate continues to warm. Based on ANDRILL data combined with computer models of ice sheet behavior, collapse of the entire WAIS is likely to occur on the order of 1,000 years, but recent studies show that melting has already begun."

The second ANDRILL study in Nature--led by David Pollard of Pennsylvania State University and Rob DeConto from University of Massachusetts--reports results from a computer model of the ice sheets. The model shows that each time the WAIS collapsed, some of the margins of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet also melted, and the combined effect was a global sea level rise of 7 meters above present-day levels.

Whether the beginnings of such a collapse could start 100 years from now or within the next millennium is hard to predict and depends on future atmospheric CO2 levels, the researchers said. However, the new information from ANDRILL contributes a missing piece of the puzzle as scientists try to refine their predictions of the effects of global warming.

The most recent report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) noted that because so little is understood about ice sheet behavior it is difficult to predict how ice sheets will contribute to sea level rise in a warming world. The behavior of ice sheets, the IPCC report said, is one of the major uncertainties in predicting exactly how the warming of the globe will affect human populations.

"From these combined data modeling studies, we can say that past warming events caused West Antarctic ice shelves and ice grounded below sea level to melt and disappear. The modeling suggests these collapses took one to a few thousand years," Pollard said.

Pollard and DeConto also underscored the role of ocean temperatures in melting of the ice.

"It's clear from our combined research using geological data and modeling that ocean temperatures play a key role," DeConto said. "The most substantial melting of protective ice shelves comes from beneath the ice, where it is in contact with seawater. We now need more data to determine what is happening to the underside of contemporary ice shelves."

The National Science Foundation (NSF), which manages the U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP), provided about $20 million in support of the ANDRILL program. The other ANDRILL national partners contributed an additional $10 million in science and logistics support.

The ANDRILL Science Management Office, located at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, supports science planning and the activities of the international ANDRILL Science Committee (ASC). Antarctica New Zealand is the ANDRILL project operator and has developed the drilling system in collaboration with Alex Pyne at Victoria University of Wellington and Webster Drilling and Exploration.

The U.S. Antarctic Program and Raytheon Polar Services Corporation (RPSC) supported the science team at McMurdo Station and in the Crary Science and Engineering Laboratory, while Antarctica New Zealand supported the drilling team at Scott Base.

ANDRILL scientific studies are jointly supported by: the U.S. National Science Foundation, the New Zealand Foundation for Research, the Italian Antarctic Research Program, the German Science Foundation and the Alfred Wegener Institute.
Adapted from materials provided by National Science Foundation.